Learning & resources

The EPA makes use of the standards in the AAQ NEPM as reference numbers when developing appropriate criteria for planning responses to minimise off-site impacts on communities, and to protect human health, since they are health based criteria and represent our best available information. These standards are also used to ensure facilities that emit these pollutants do not adversely impact sensitive receivers. 

As stated elsewhere, a number of factors determine the risk to communities from exposure to air pollution, including the amount of the pollutant emitted, location and height of the emission source, weather and topography. The size of the airshed^[2] is also important. A given amount of a substance emitted into the Adelaide airshed is going to have a different impact than if it is emitted into the Port Pirie airshed or in a country town. Proximity to emission sources is also important, for example people living in close proximity to an emission source such as a major road may be experiencing higher levels of pollution than those in a predominantly residential area.

It is important to note that understanding air quality is not a simple matter of assuming that quantity of pollutants emitted in an airshed relates directly to impacts at ground level since there are many variables that affect distribution and dispersion. For example, looking at National Pollutant Inventory (NPI)^[3] data alone does not necessarily correlate to ground level impact in all cases. Monitoring combined with a number of other programs and initiatives that EPA is involved with will allow us to better understand community exposure and provide for better policy outcomes.

The properties of a pollutant, such as toxicity, also play a role. The EPA publication Ambient Air Quality Assessment 2016 provides advice to proponents of new developments and established industries  on how to assess the ground level impact (or potential impact) of their emissions. Ground level concentrations (GLCs) criteria, which are based on protecting public health and amenity, and other environmental factors if they are more sensitive than human health, are found in Schedule 2 of the Environment Protection (Air Quality) Policy 2016.

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^[1] NEPC is a national statutory body with ministerial membership (state and territory). Its two primary functions are to make National Environment Protection Measures (NEPMs) and to assess and report on the implementation and effectiveness of the NEPMs by the jurisdictions. NEPMs are a special set of national objectives designed to assist in protecting or managing particular aspects of the environment.

^[2] an area or a region such as a city or a town, where air pollution readily accumulates.

^[3] The National Pollutant Iinventory (NPI) is a publically available database of estimated pollutant emissions from a variety of industrial, commercial and diffuse sources (examples of diffuse sources are transport, gardening equipment, and domestic burning).
www.npi.gov.au

When we speak about air quality a particle is a tiny piece of material that is small enough to be suspended in the air. Particles may be soil, rock, or mineral dust; or may be very complicated mixtures of many different chemicals, like smoke or vehicle exhaust and may come in many different sizes and shapes: round and smooth, long and thin, or rough and irregular.

Particles can be primary or secondary in origin. Primary particles are emitted directly into the atmosphere while secondary particles are not emitted directly but are formed in the atmosphere through interactions between gaseous and suspended liquid droplets of chemicals (aerosols) under the action of sunlight (Photochemical smog); and are usually found in conjunction with oxidants (see ozone).

A collection of particles is often called particulate matter (PM).

The sizes of particles are important because they determine firstly, whether we can breathe them into our noses and throats and once there, whether they can enter our lungs, where they may cause damage. For practical ambient air quality work, we generally recognise three categories or fractions of particulate matter: total suspended particulates, PM₁₀ and PM_2.5.

Total suspended particulates (TSP) covers the full range of particle sizes, including fine particles and those larger than 10 micrometres (μm)^[4] equivalent aerodynamic diameter (EAD)^[5] that cannot pass the nose and throat (ranging up to 50-100 μm). Hence, the larger particles are generally more of a nuisance rather than a health issue as they can cause general dust problems (e.g. soiling of clothes or buildings) and because they are swallowed or expelled by coughing.

To get into our bodies, particles need to be very small. The largest particles that can normally be breathed in have sizes of around 10 micrometres and all of the particles up to that size are collectively called 'PM₁₀'. They include particles that can deposit in the upper parts of our throats and airways, and some can reach down to our lungs.

To better understand health impacts, we also identify a group of even smaller particles with sizes up to 2.5 micrometres, which we call 'PM_2.5'. You may also hear them called 'fine particles'. These are so small that they can reach into the deepest areas of our lungs.

They are also responsible for the haziness that we often see in the atmospheres of our cities.

There are many sources of particles, some natural (like dust, pollen, bushfire smoke and sea salt) and some man-made (primary and secondary). In cities, PM_2.5 comes from transport, industry and some domestic activities. Smoke from combustion of fuels is an important source of PM_2.5 which may affect air quality, both locally and within larger suburban areas. Examples include industrial boilers, motor vehicles, and domestic wood heaters.

The estimated total amount of PM₁₀ emitted to selected airsheds as well as the main sources of PM₁₀ are shown in the diagrams below.^[6] The total annual amount of PM_2.5 emitted to the same airsheds from industrial sources is also shown. Aggregate emission data (emissions from sources such as domestic burning, lawn mowing and motor vehicles) are not currently available for PM_2.5 and hence only total emissions from industry is able to be shown. 

Planned burning, including activities to manage risks in national parks, and agricultural and forestry burning can at times contribute to PM_2.5 levels in metropolitan Adelaide and regional cities and towns. Bushfires, house and factory fires can also expose people to high levels of smoke for short periods.

Smoke particles are usually very small and consist of a complex mixture of solids, liquids and gases, including a wide range of products of partially burned fuel containing a wide range of irritating chemicals, carbon-containing products and metallic compounds.

Human health effects of particle pollution are diverse in scope, severity and duration and include:

• premature mortality
• aggravation of cardiovascular disease such as atherosclerosis
• aggravation of respiratory disease such as asthma
• changes to lung tissue, structure and function
• cancer – the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) has recently classified outdoor air pollution (with a specific emphasis on PM and diesel engine exhaust) as carcinogenic
• reproductive and developmental effects
• changes in the function of the nervous system.

Recent work in Australia and overseas indicates that exposure to these fine particles pose the greatest risk for communities and costs to the health systems, when compared with other pollutants; however, reducing exposure to them also provides the greatest economic benefit.

The particle standards have at times been exceeded at all monitoring sites in South Australia, often because of extreme events. During the drought there were several exceedences of the 24-hour PM₁₀ standard, however since the breaking of the drought there have been fewer exceedences. Monitoring in Mount Gambier showed there were regular exceedences of the daily PM_2.5 standard due to a combination of domestic heating and industrial emissions, particularly in winter.

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^[4] millionths of a metre.

^[5] Scientists measure particles as if they behave like tiny round droplets of water, irrespective of their size, density or shape. This is referred to as equivalent aerodynamic diameter (EAD). For example we say that any particle that behaves in the same way as a droplet of water with a diameter of 10 micrometres has an EAD of 10 micrometres.

^[6] The National pollutant inventory (NPI) is a publically available database of estimated pollutant emissions from a variety of industrial, commercial and diffuse sources (examples of diffuse sources are transport, gardening equipment, and domestic burning).

Total pollutant emissions and relative source contributions diagrams are based on National Pollutant Inventory (NPI) estimates (2002–03 aggregate emission data and 2012–13 industrial data). Please note there are other sources that contribute to the total amount of PM10 emitted to airsheds, such as natural and agricultural sources, which are not included in these graphs. They also do not account for secondary particles which will also add to particle levels in the air. Please note also that pie charts are not to scale, they differ in size to graphically represent the differences between the total amounts emitted to each airshed.

Oxides of nitrogen or nitrogen oxides (NOx) are mostly a mixture of nitrogen dioxide (NO₂) and nitric oxide (NO). In general other oxides are in very low concentrations. Australia has standards for nitrogen dioxide as it is the pollutant for which effects have been identified at the levels typically found in the atmosphere.

Nitrogen dioxide is a primary pollutant emitted directly to the atmosphere from combustion sources and is also as a key participant in reactions in the atmosphere that form photochemical smog under the action of sunlight (‘photo’ = light + ‘chemical’). Important products of these processes are ozone and other 'oxidants' and fine secondary particles within the PM_2.5 range.  Those fine particles scatter sunlight effectively so they can contribute strongly to the haziness we often see in polluted atmospheres. 

Nitrogen dioxide is often called a 'precursor' of photochemical smog. Other precursors are volatile organic compounds (VOC) that arise from many different sources. These include a wide range of organic (carbon-containing) chemicals from unburnt petrol, diesel and domestic fires, and other chemicals emitted by industries and vegetation.

Oxides of nitrogen are created in combustion processes; where nitrogen in the air is oxidised at high temperatures. The most common sources are motor vehicle exhausts, power stations and industrial boilers. The main sources of NOx in 4 South Australian cities are summarised in the diagram below, as well as an estimate of the total amount emitted into the airsheds^[7].

Monitoring in Adelaide has showed that nitrogen dioxide levels are generally low and below the Australian standards; campaign monitoring in country areas has also showed low concentrations of nitrogen dioxide, so it was considered unnecessary to continue monitoring in these regional areas.  

Nitrogen dioxide is an acidic gas that can cause irritation and inflammation of the airways, and reduce a person’s immunity to lung infections; potentially causing problems such as wheezing, coughing, colds, flu and bronchitis. People with existing respiratory conditions (such as asthma), particularly children and the elderly, are most at risk.

The Australian Child Health and Air Pollution Study (ACHAPS) found consistent evidence that higher levels of air pollution were associated with adverse respiratory health effects in children and that nitrogen dioxide had the strongest association with adverse respiratory effects in children. The study also found some adverse respiratory health effects associated with particles.

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^[7] Total pollutant emissions and relative source contributions diagrams are based on National Pollutant Inventory (NPI) estimates (2002–03 aggregate emission data and 2012–13 industrial data). Please note there may be other sources of NOx which are not included in these graphs. Please note also that pie charts are not to scale, they differ in size to graphically represent the differences between the total amounts emitted to each airshed.

Ground-level ozone^[8] is a secondary pollutant which is formed by chemical reactions between nitrogen oxides and organic compounds in the presence of sunlight (see discussion under nitrogen dioxide).

Ozone is a highly reactive form of oxygen. It is perhaps the simplest member of a group of chemicals called ‘oxidants’ that form under the action of sunlight, within clouds of photochemical smog. You may see references to other oxidants such as 'PAN'^[9], which are more complex chemicals than ozone and tend to form as the smog 'ages'.

Ozone is the easiest member of the class to measure and is often in the largest concentrations, so it is used as an 'indicator' of oxidants. So within the AAQ NEPM you will see the Australian standard written as 'oxidants (as ozone)'. During summer, ozone concentrations close to the standards have been recorded in Adelaide, however the standards are rarely exceeded.

Ozone can potentially have a number of health effects including irritation of the lining of the nose, throat and lungs, coughing, breathing difficulties, chest pain, increased risk of respiratory infections, and aggravation of existing lung diseases. Children, the elderly, people with lung disease and people who are active outdoors are the most sensitive to the effects of ozone.

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^[8] not to be confused with ozone in the upper atmosphere, known colloquially as the 'ozone layer'.

^[9] peroxyacetyl nitrate.

Carbon monoxide (CO) is a toxic, colourless gas created by the incomplete combustion of carbon-based (fossil) fuels such as petrol, gas and wood. Motor vehicles, domestic sources such as solid fuel burning and lawn mowing, and industrial boilers are the main contributors of carbon monoxide emissions to air, as shown in the diagram below^[10].

Ambient levels of carbon monoxide are generally not of concern in Australian cities. Although carbon monoxide emissions are higher in metropolitan Adelaide than in other parts of the state, monitoring shows that levels in Adelaide are consistently well below the Australian standard. In 2013 the highest concentration recorded in Northern Adelaide reached only 11% of the standard. 

Carbon monoxide is absorbed through the lungs into the body where it binds to haemoglobin and reduces the capacity of the blood to deliver oxygen to organs and tissues of the body. Prolonged exposure can lead to tissue damage and very high levels can cause death. People with existing cardiovascular disease are particularly at risk but healthy people can also be affected.

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^[10] Total pollutant emissions and relative source contributions diagrams are based on National Pollutant Inventory (NPI) estimates (2002–03 aggregate emission data and 2012/2013 industrial data). Please note there may be other sources of CO which are not included in these graphs. Please note also that pie charts are not to scale, they differ in size to graphically represent the differences between the total amounts emitted to each airshed.

Lead (Pb) is a heavy metal pollutant found in industrial emissions mainly associated with smelting. Port Pirie is the location of one of the world’s primary lead smelters, is the only one in South Australia where lead is still of concern, however the Nyrstar Transformation Project is designed to lower lead emissions and hence reduce the impacts of lead in Port Pirie.

Leaded petrol was once a significant source of airborne lead pollution around the world, from motor vehicle exhaust, but was phased out in 2000 in Australia. Consequently, lead pollution due to motor vehicle exhaust has dropped to negligible levels. Historical lead monitoring in Adelaide showed low levels of lead in air following the phase-out of leaded petrol, and monitoring was discontinued.

Children are more susceptible to the health effects of lead than adults. Long-term exposure to low levels of lead may be associated with reduced growth, learning difficulties, behavioural problems and reduced IQ in young children. 

Sulfur dioxide (SO₂) is an acidic gas created by burning sulfur-containing materials, including fuels that contain sulfur compounds. Most petroleum fuels contain some sulfur, although stringent limits are now in place in Australia on the level of sulfur allowed in fuels, especially as Euro 5/6 standards are phased in across Australia. Sulfur dioxide may also be emitted from works producing sulfuric acid.

Sulfur dioxide is currently only of concern in Port Pirie due to emissions from the lead smelter, as shown in the diagram below^[11], however major upgrades planned for the smelter will result in reduced sulfur dioxide emissions. Monitoring in Port Pirie shows there are regular exceedences of the 1-hour standard. Levels in metropolitan Adelaide, however are low and monitoring shows they are consistently well below Australian standards. Sources in Adelaide, Whyalla and Mount Gambier are also shown below. 

Sulfur dioxide can irritate the nose, throat and lungs. People with respiratory illnesses are most at risk of developing problems when exposed. Sulfur dioxide can also result in secondary particles forming through atmospheric oxidation to form sulfites and sulfates.

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^[11] Total pollutant emissions and relative source contributions diagrams are based on National Pollutant Inventory (NPI) estimates (2002–03 aggregate emission data and 2012–13 industrial data). Please note that pie charts are not to scale, they differ in size to graphically represent the differences between the total amounts emitted to each airshed.

Other pollutants of concern include a range of organic (carbon containing) compounds particularly in the vicinity of emission sources whether they be industry, major roads or domestic premises. Some of these pollutants are included in the National Environment Protection (Air Toxics) Measure (Air Toxics NEPM).

• National Pollutant Inventory (NPI) website
• SA EPA (NPI section)
• US EPA
• Australian Government Department of the Environment

As mentioned previously, larger particles are generally more of an amenity or nuisance issue than a human health risk as they are too large to pass beyond the nose or throat. Amenity impacts are usually associated with particles larger than PM₁₀ (see also Total Suspended Particulates, TSP under Particulate matter). Dust will generally fallout of the air closer to the source of emissions than fine particles which can travel large distances.

Dust is the cause of numerous complaints due to soiling of clothes and dust depositing on surfaces such as cars, roofs, or furniture. Dust on roofs can then be washed into rain water tanks when it rains. Concerns can also relate to visible dust plumes, which can be associated with short-term events with high emissions, such as occurs with blasting at a mine site. People may also complain because of irritation to the skin, nose and throat.

Sources of nuisance dust

Nuisance dust is often the result of activities that mechanically disturb rock and soil materials such as mining activities, construction activities, bulk handling activities and the stirring-up of dirt on roads or paddocks by cars and livestock for example. Dust can also be generated when wind blows over bare ground and stockpiles.

Dust management

Dust management is about applying good environmental practice and taking all reasonable and practicable measures to minimise emissions and meet the General Environmental Duty.

There are several ways this can be done, depending on the activity, ranging from emission reduction measures such as the use of water sprays, barriers, revegetation and covering stockpiles, to using weather forecasts and working appropriately under conditions that could result in nuisance impacts.

Separation can also be used to minimise the impacts on the local community. Developments will be required to demonstrate how dust will be managed, for example this could be demonstrated by including a Construction Environment Management Plan (CEMP) with the application. 

Odours have the potential to cause significant impacts on people's lives and adversely affect their amenity. The main effect of environmental odour is nuisance, but stronger or persistent odours can lead to feelings of nausea, headache, loss of sleep and other symptoms of stress.

Repeated exposure to nuisance levels of odour can lead to a high level of annoyance. While some people may become acclimatised to odours, others may become sensitised to them. An individual’s response to odour may be influenced by a variety of factors including:

• the state of their health
• previous experience with the odour
• relationship to the enterprise generating the odour (if a person’s livelihood is dependent, directly or indirectly, on the operation, the perception of the odours may not be as severe if the person has had negative experiences with the operation).

There are several factors, which can determine the potential for nuisance, annoyance and complaint. These are often referred to as the FIDOL factors:

• frequency
• intensity
• duration
• offensiveness
• location.

Generally the greater the frequency, intensity, duration, or offensiveness of an odour, the more likely it is to cause annoyance and complaints.

Sources of odour

Odour can come from a variety of industrial sources such as sewerage treatment facilities, abattoirs, fish processors, rendering plants, landfills, composting facilities, intensive animal keeping and petroleum storage facilities among others.

Commercial premises such as bakeries, restaurants and take-away food outlets can also be a source of odour as can smoke from domestic wood heaters.

Odour management

Odour impacts can be reduced by good design, good management, and by adequately separating odour sources from people or communities (often called sensitive receptors or receivers) which may be adversely affected by the odour. The EPA has published guidelines to help in the assessment of potential impacts from proposed or existing industrial facilities and to ensure they are located in a suitable place, and that public health and amenity are protected. 

What are the sources of air pollution on the Le Fevre Peninsula?

There is a unique mix of sources of air pollution on the Le Fevre Peninsula including industry, heavy rail and truck movements to and from the major working port, motor vehicles, and domestic sources. These sources are often in close proximity to the residential and recreational landuses in the area. While industrial emissions do contribute, a significant amount of air pollution comes from other sources including vehicles along with smaller commercial and domestic sources including wood fuelled heaters and small engines. Dust, sea spray and other natural sources can also affect local air quality.

What is the EPA doing to reduce air pollution and protect air quality in the area?

The EPA uses a variety of tools to ensure continuous improvement towards the protection, restoration and enhancement of air quality. On the Le Fevre Peninsula this includes proactively regulating industry based on 'firm but fair' and risk based approaches, monitoring air quality, as well as having a role in the planning system to ensure air quality principles are applied early in planning processes or that individual proposals will not have an unacceptable air quality impact.

The EPA has two air monitoring stations in the Le Fevre Peninsula. In June 2005, the first station was established at Birkenhead (Le Fevre 1), which continuously monitors fine particles. In 2013 the EPA opened its second air quality monitoring station at North Haven (Le Fevre 2). The North Haven station monitors a wider range of pollutants, including fine particles and gases, and is an important part of the EPA’s continuing research into pollution sources and patterns and how they may impact on air quality in the northwest metropolitan area.

Who does the EPA licence on the Le Fevre Peninsula?

There are many different types of activities undertaken on the Le Fevre Peninsula which are licensed by the EPA; marinas and boating facilities are one of the most commonly licenced activities, others include:

• waste production, disposal, recycling and transport (e.g. waste or recycling depots)
• chemical and petroleum storage facilities and chemical works
• manufacturing (eg maritime construction, cement production, concrete batching, abrasive blasting)
• materials handling (eg railway operations, bulk shipping facilities)
• fuel burning.

The EPA will continue to work with licenced industries in the Port Adelaide region to ensure pollution risks are appropriately managed. The EPA works to ensure industries are compliant with EPA licence conditions and if need be, it will require industries to undertake an environment improvement program (EIP) to address any pollution issues. The EPA also has a range of powers to use when industry does not comply with environmental laws.

The EPA impresses on industry the importance of open communication with the local community. Companies such as Adelaide Brighton Cement (ABC) have established a community liaison group to work with them in identifying and addressing pollution issues.

Where can I find out more information about air quality in the Port Adelaide-Le Fevre Peninsula area?

Community groups and forums are held in the Port Adelaide region such as the Port Adelaide Environment Forum. This forum discusses local environmental matters and guest speakers are invited to join in on discussions. For more information please contact the Port Adelaide Enfield Council on (08) 8405 6989. 

• Who cares about our air? A workbook on air pollution for primary schools
• Clean Air for Better Breathing
• Primary levels lesson plans
• Primary levels activity sheets
• Primary levels slide handouts
• Middle/secondary levels lesson plans
• Middle/secondary levels activity sheets
• Air quality and asthma audit tools
• Air quality and asthma school audit
• Air quality and asthma school audit tool icons sheet
• School air quality auditing
• Guiding questions
• Draft school air quality audit (transport)
• Whole-of-school action plan template
• Visual air quality monitoring
• Instructions
• Recording sheet
• Sustainable schools
• A whole-school approach to improving air quality(information sheet)
• Key elements of working towards a whole-school approach (information sheet)
• Macintyre High School (NSW) School Environmental Management Plan (SEMP) (interstate example of a whole-school action plan that includes air quality)
• Fighting to breathe – an environmental campaign (International example of a ‘clean air’ initiative undertaken in a school).

Further information and useful links

• Asthma Australia
• Asthma Friendly Schools
• Australian Sustainable Schools Initiative (AuSSI)
• Australian Sustainable Schools Initiative - South Australia
• Transport
• AdelaideMetro
• A guide for new and rusty riders - Cycle Instead it’s easier than you think
• Public transport and travel
• Green Vehicle Guide
• Indoor air quality
• IAQ (Indoor Air Quality) Tools for Schools Program (US)
• Your home - The healthy home
• Designing quality learning spaces: ventilation and indoor air quality
• Department for Education and Child Development, Asset Policy and Capital Programs, ‘Air Conditioning’ (Ventilation, Heating and Cooling) Policy
• Dust and pollen
• Asthma and allergy friendly gardens
• Pollen allergy